Corrections and Retractions

Authors should notify the editorial office promptly when they discover a material error in a published article. Readers may also report a specific concern with evidence.

• Correction: used for an error that needs a public amendment while the main findings remain reliable. The notice describes the change and links to the article.
• Expression of concern: may be issued when a serious reliability or ethics concern remains unresolved and readers need to be alerted pending investigation.
• Retraction: used when findings are unreliable, serious misconduct or unethical research is established, or another substantial reason warrants withdrawal from the scholarly record.

Editors examine evidence and seek responses from affected authors. A notice states the reason, identifies who is issuing it and is linked to the article. Retracted articles normally remain accessible with a clear retraction label so that the record is preserved. Exceptional removal may be considered for substantiated legal, privacy or serious harm concerns; a notice explaining the removal remains where feasible. Silent changes to substantive findings are not permitted.